The most recent affirmative action case to reach Supreme Court decision was Grutter v. Bollinger [5], expected to impact all of higher education including medical schools. Petitioner Grutter explicitly claimed that the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action policy violated her constitutional protections. The Supreme Court also accepted a companion case argued April 1^st, 2003, Gratz v. Bollinger [35], involving undergraduate admissions but with the use of the quota system. Both Grutter and Gratz were denied admission to the University of Michigan Law School and College respectively, claiming they were unfairly rejected because of race-conscious affirmative action policies. But, the undergraduate case involved the university instituting a quota system providing an additional 20 out of a total 100 points to every single underrepresented minority applicant, equating to a full GPA point. As a "friend of the Court," Harvard University, UCLA, AAMC, Howard University, Carnegie Mellon, and many others filed amici curiae briefs in support of affirmative action programs, primarily stating the essential role of diversity in all higher education and society.